Thangneunuam:MUAS, Myuangmya , myanmar
Zomi
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Jump to: navigation, search Zomi Total population c. 2,500,000
Regions with significant populations Northeast India · Bangladesh
Myanmar (Burma)
Languages
Zomi language , Tribes
Tedim · Paite · Zou · Simte · Vaiphei · Kom · Gangte · Mate ·
Thadou · Haokip · Kipgen · Sitlhou · Lhouvum · Anal · Maring ·
Muyon · Monsang
Religion
Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Chin · Mizo · Kuki · Naga · Hmar · Tibetans
Zomi is the name of a major tribe found in various parts of South and
South East Asia. The term Zomi, meaning 'Zo People', is derived from the
generic name 'Zo', the progenitor of the Zomi. They are found in
northwestern Myanmar, northeastern India and Bangladesh. Anthropologists
classify them as Tibeto-Burman speaking member of the Mongoloid race.
In the past they were little known by this racial nomenclature. They
were known by the non-tribal plain peoples of Myanmar, Bangladesh and
India as Chin, Kuki, or Lushai. Subsequently the British employed these
terms to christen those 'wild hill tribes' living in the "un-admiial.
They are Zomi not because they live in the highlands or hills, but are
Zomi and call themselves Zomi because they are the descendants of their
great great ancestor, 'Zo'".
The Zo people have common primordial name (i.e. Zo) common history,
cultural affinities, belief system, economic life and cherished the
dream of restoring their glorious past. They remain independent,
self-sufficient and were never subjugated until the advent of the
British imperialist. They governed themselves according to their
traditional polity and legal system ensuring justice for all. The
consequences of British imperialism proved disastrous and painful for
the Zomi as they were subjected to subjugation, segmentation, division
and confusion. As a result their primordial identity was almost
completely forgotten and neglected.
The Zo people and their land was dismembered, bifurcated and appended to
three sovereign countries – India, Burma and Bangladesh – by British
imperialists to fit their own administrative conveniences without Zo
people's knowledge and consent. The state boundaries within the
nation-state further scattered Zo people and they became ethnic
minorities wherever they are. They are deprived of their socio-economic,
political and cultural rights and were subjugated as aliens in their
ancestral homeland.
Nevertheless, it was the British themselves who later realized the
undeniable common anthropological, historical, cultural and ethnic
traits, existing among the Zo people whom they called Kuki, Chin or
Lushai. Thus, the Britishers convened the famous Chin-Lushai Conference
at Fort Williams in 1982 and decided to amalgamate the Chin-Lushai
country (Zoland) . The process of bringing Zo people under a single
administrative unit is not realised completely till today. Initially,
the Zo people were politically ignorant to take full advantages of such
bold steps initiated by the British, however today, they are aware of
their true national identity and steadfastly pursue the vision to
restore their glorious past.
Map of the Zomi-inhabited areas
Contents
Geographical Location
“ Our present geographical distribution extends from the Naga Hills
and the Hukawng Valley in the north to Bassein and the Irrawaddy Delta
in the south, from the Irrawaddy and Sittang Valleys in the east to the
Arakan coast, Bangladesh, Assam and Manipur in the West. In short, we
occupy the mountainous region between India and Bangladesh in the west
and the Chindwin-Irrawaddy valleys in the east, and the plains and
valleys adjacent to these hilly regions.[1] ”
One Zomi folksong tellingly delineates the area of Zogam as follows:
"Penlehpi leh Kangtui minthang,
A tua tong Zouta kual sung chi ua;
Khang Vaimang leh tuan a pupa,
Tongchiamna Kangtui minthang aw"
Free translation:
The famous Penlehpi and Kangtui,
Between the two is the Zomi country;
The Southern King and our forefathers,
Made an agreement at the famous Kangtui
This old folk song clearly tells us the area of the Zomi ancestral
homeland, for Penlehpi is a Burmese word for the Bay of Bengal and
Kangtui is identified with Tuikang (Chindwin River).
This Zoland is geographically contiguous, compact and has been the land
where the Zomi permanently settled for centuries. Here they lived in
complete independence before the advent of the British. They lived
without any outside interference and domination, and no part of her
territory had been subjugated. Within their territory, they were knitted
together by common traditions, customs, cultures; mode of living;
language and social life. They governed themselves in accordance with
their customary laws. It was a sovereign land where the people enjoyed
perfect harmony on their own.
History
Who are the Zomi
The Generic Name
F.K. Lehman, Professor of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of
Illinois (USA), who had done extensive study on the Chin of Burma, said:
No single Chin word has explicit reference to all the peoples we
customarily call Chin, but all - or nearly all of the peoples have a
special word for themselves and those of their congeners with whom they
are in regular contact. This word is almost always a variant form of a
single root, which appears as Zo, Yo, Ysou, Shou and the like.[2]
Relating to this generic name, Fan-Cho a diplomat of the Tang dynasty of
China, mentioned in 862 AD a Kingdom in the Chindwin Valley whose
Princes and Chiefs were called Shou (Zo).[3] In 1783, Father Vincentius
Sangermano in his book, 'A Description of the Burmese Empire' described
them as, "a petty nation called JO (JAW)"[4] Sir Henry Yule, as early as
1508 mentioned about the YO country the location of which was "west of
the mouth of the Kyen-dwen (Chindwin) the interior of Doab, between the
Irrawaddy and the Chindwin, from Mout-Shabo upwards and the whole of the
hill country east and north-east of the capital, towards the
Ruby-mines, the upper course of Hyitnge, and the Chinese frontier".[5]
Rev. Howard Malcolm also testified thus, "The YAW (ZO) is on the lower
waters of the Khyendiwen (Chindwin) not far from Ava. The district is
sometimes called YO or JO".[6]
Another early use of the name Zo with reference to the Zomi
(Kuki-Chin-Lushai), the first on the Lushai Hills side which till then
was a terra incognito, was by Col. T.H. Lewin, the first white man to
know the inhabitants of Lushai Hills (Mizoram). He wrote that he came to
know, during the Lushai Expedition of 1871-72 that, the generic name of
the whole nation is Dzo. Dr. Francis Buchanan also wrote of Zomi and
Zomi language, while Captain Pemberton mentioned Zo or Jo in his Reports
on the Eastern Frontiers of British India, 1835. The fact that the Zomi
were known as ZOU or YO or YAW, before their society evolved into clan
based organisation and lineage segmentation, was pointed out by Dr. G.A.
Grierson in his survey, thus,
The name (Kuki and Chin) is not used by the tribes themselves, who use titles such as Zo or Yo or Cho.[7]
Rev Sukte T. Hau Go, a former lecturer of Mandalay University (Burma) also shared the same view,
Zomi is the correct original historical name of our people, from the
Naga hill to the Bay of Bengal. To the north of Tedim, the Thadous and
other tribes call themselves Yo; in Falam, Laizo. The Tedim people call
themselves Zo; the Lushais, Mizo; in Haka, Zotung, Zophei, Zokhua. In
Gangaw area Zo is pronounced as YAW, in Mindat Jo or CHO; and in Paletwa
Khomi. In Prome, Thayetmyo, Sandoway and Bassein areas they call
themselves A-Sho. So, in spite of slight variations Zomi is our original
historical national name.[8]
Regarding the truth of Zomi as the racial designation of the so-called
Kuki-Chin people, U Thein Re Myint, a well known Burmese Writer, who
knew Chin history, perhaps better than the Chin themselves remarks:
Even though these tribes of people, who are called Chin, do not
necessarily protest their name, their original name is, in fact,
Zomi.[9]
Two British administrators, Bertram S. Carey and H.N. Tuck who place Zo
people under modern system of administration record as thus:
Those of the Kuki tribes which we designate as "Chins" do not
recognise that name……they call themselves YO (ZO)…and YO (ZO) is the
general name by which the Chins call their race.[10]
Another European writer, Sir J. George Scott also claimed that, the Zomi
never called themselves by such names as Kuki or Chin or Lushai. He
wrote:
The names like Kuki and Chin are not national, and have been given
to them by their neighbours. Like others, the people do not accept the
name given by the Burmese and ourselves; they do not call themselves
Chins, and they equally flout the name of Kuki which their Assamese
neighbours use. They call themselves Zhou or Shu and in other parts Yo
or Lai.[11]
It is, therefore, no wonder that Zomi use the term Zo, Zou, Zhou, Chou,
Shou, Yo, Jo, Yaw, Shu, etc. in their speech and poetic language as
Zo-Vontawi, Zo-lei, Zogam or Zoram, Zo-tui, Zo-fa, etc.; in naming
geographical names such as Zotlang, Zopui, Zobawks; and in some of the
clan names like Zophei, Zotung, Zokhua, Laizo, Bawmzo, Zote, etc. All
these have a common derivation from the generic name, "ZO". It is also
because of this fact that scholars like Dr. Vum Kho Hau, Prof. Laldena,
Dr. Vum Son, Dr. Tualchin Neihsial, Dr. H. Kamkhenthang, Dr. Mangkhosat
Kipgen, Cap. Sing Khaw Khai, Dr. J. M. Paupu, Pu K. Zawla, Pu R.
Vanlawma, B. Langthanliana, Dr. V. Lunghnema, Dr. Hawlngam Haokip, Pu L.
S. Gangte, Pu T. Gougin, Pu Thang Khan Gin Ngaihte, Rev. S. Prim
Vaiphei, Rev. Khup Za Go, Pu L. Keivom, Rev. S. T. Hau Go, Dr. Khen Za
Sian, Prof. Thang Za Tuan, Rev. Sing Ling etc. concluded that ZO is the
ancestor of the Zo people (Zomi). However, there are several
contestations that the 'Zo' people be recognised as 'Mizo' in Mizoram
state of India, 'Zomi'/'Chins' in Chin Hills province of Myanmar and
'Kuki' in Manipur, Nagaland, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Sagiang
Division of Myanmar.[12]
The Origin Of The Name
There are two views about the origin of the word, 'ZOMI'. The first and
most acceptable view is that Zo is a person whose descendants are called
Zo-fate or Zo-suante. Some scholars like Pu Thawng Khaw Hau and Pu
Captain K. A. Khup Za Thang presented the genealogical table of various
Zomi clans in which they strongly claim that they are the descendants of
Zo. Zo Khang Simna Laibu[13] and Zo Suan Khang Simna Laibu (Genealogy
of the Zo Race of Burma)[14] cover extensively the genealogy of Zo
people in Chin State as well as those living in Mizoram and Manipur. Dr.
Vum Kho Hau[15] and Dr. Vum Son[16] trace all the Zomi lineal to Zo. Pu
Dr. V. Lunghnema wrote the Genealogy of the Hmar tribes, a branch of
the Zo family, and he identified Zo as the ancestor of the Hmar clan .
This interpretation of the term 'ZO' is substantiated by the fact that
Zomi have a tradition of naming their clans after the head of each clan,
thereby, Hualngo, Zahao, Guite, Singsit, Sailo, etc. clans carry each
of their fore-father's name. Likewise, it is logically true with Zo, Dzo
or a very similar sounding one for the name of Zo as the founder of Zo
people or Zomi. So, the word Zo is a generic name and Zomi is derived
from the name of the ancestor with reference to his descendants.
The second view suggests that the term Zo might have been derived from
the Zo King of the Zhou Dynasty (B.C. 1027-225) of China. The main
argument in this regard is that in ancient times the names of the ruling
dynasty became the identity for the subjects.[17]
Whatever differences of opinion there may be, regarding the origin of
Zomi, there is ample historical evidence to support that they are Zomi
from time immemorial, and lived together under the umbrella of one
cultural unity of ancient Zo.[18]
Meaning Of The Name
On the meaning of the term Zo, there are intellectuals who translate Zo
as Highland. This translation of Zo as highland or cold region and
subsequently Mizo or Zomi as highlanders or people of the hills is too
simplistic and misleading, because the people called themselves Zomi
when they lived in the plains of the Chindwin Valley and else where. The
word 'ZO' or 'Zo LO' might mean highland or highland farms but not
highlanders nor highland farmers. Pu R. Vanlawma, a veteran politician
and a prolific writer of Mizoram has correctly advocated that,
It was not the people who derived their name Zo from the high
altitude of their abode, but on the contrary it was the high lands and
especially the farm lands there, called 'Zo Lo' which derived their name
from the Zo people who cultivated the farms.[19]
The generic name 'ZO' has no relation with the geographical-climatic
term 'Zo' . As a matter of fact, Zo is a generic name whose word is of
local origin and needs no further explanation, whereas 'mi' means man or
people and there is no ambiguity about it. In this way of historical
process, Zo people identified themselves with Zo and emerged as a race
to be called ZOMI among mankind.
The Zomi are, therefore, those ethnic or linguistic, or cultural
groupings of people who had commonly inherited the history, tradition
and culture of Zo as their legacies, irrespective of the names given to
them by outsiders.
Zo is the Name derived from "Pu Zo" or "Grand Father Zo". The Legends
said that "Pu Zo" was the Father of all Zomi Tribes and from him came
out Zo, Sim, Mal, Thei zang, Shi zang, Thado, Paite, Vaiphei, in the
which Zo is the first born among others and even in other Tribes who are
called Chins in Burma and Mizo India. Even some of the Naga Tribes in
India have Resemblance in Language with Zo and even in Cultural Origins.
Generic Name / Imposed Names
It is unfortunate and quite confusing for insiders as well as outsiders
that the Zomi, who belong to the same racial stock, shared history,
culture and traditions are recognised by different names : while the
Burmese called them 'Chin' or 'Khyan', the Bengalis and others in India
called them 'Kuki', with a variety of spellings. The British added a
third name, Lushai, in the early 1870s to compound the confusion.
However, key British Military Officers and Civil Administrators soon
realized that the people whom they called by various names were the same
people and that they should be dealt with as a single group. Thus, they
began to refer to them by various hyphenated names, e.g. Chin-Lushai
(A.S. Reid), Lusei-Kuki (J. Shakespear), Kuki-Chin (G.A. Grierson), and
even a triple hyphenated form was used, e.g. Kuki-Lushai-Chin (S.
Fuchs).
What did they call themselves before terms like Kuki, Chin or Lushai
were imposed upon them have been much discussed. For better
understanding of our racial and national nomenclature, the origin and
meaning of the imposed names may be discussed. Please click below links
for further study:
1. Chin
As already mentioned, in Burma the Zomi are known as Chin. It has since
become a matter of great controversy how this terminology originated. In
this respect many scholars advanced different theories. B. S. Carey and
H. N. Tuck asserted it to be a Burmese corruption of the Chins word
"Jin" or "Jen" which means man. Prof. F. K. Lehman was of the view that
the term might be from the Burmese word 'Khyan" which means 'basket',
saying,
The term 'Chin' is imprecise. It is a Burmese word (khyan), not a
Chin Word. It is homologous with the contemporary Burmese word meaning
basket.[20]
Implied thus is that the basket carrying inhabitants of the Chin Hills bordering the plain Burmans are Chin.
But according to Prof. G. H. Luce, an eminent scholar of the early
Burmese history, the term "Chin" (khyan in old Burmese) was derived from
the Burmese word meaning "ally" or "comrade"[21] in describing the
peaceful relationship which existed between the Chins and the Pagan
Burman in their historical past. His interpretation was based on the
thirteenth century Pagan inscription. However, the same inscription also
revealed the controversial slave trade along the Chindwin River.
However, in the year 1950 the Burmese Encyclopaedia defined Chin as
"ally".
This official publication was challenged by Pu Tanuang, an M.P. from
Mindat (Chin State) in the Burmese Parliament. He criticized the
Government for politicizing the name. The Revered S. T. Hau Go, a former
lecturer of Mandalay University writes,
Whatever it meant or means, however it originated and why, the
obvious fact is that the appellation "Chin" is altogether foreign to us.
We respond to it out of necessity. But we never appropriate it and
never accept it and never use it to refer to ourselves. It is not only
foreign but derogatory, for it has become more or less synonymous with
being uncivilized, uncultured, backward, even foolish and silly. And
when we consider such name calling applied to our people as "Chinbok"
(stinking Chin) we cannot but interpret it as a direct and flagrant
insult and the fact that we have some rotten friends.[22]
Whatever the case may be, from the above evidence it can be concluded
that the word was coined by the Burmese and it was adopted by the
British officials. Investigation and research, however, proves that such
a word as "Chin" does not exist in the vocabulary of the Zomi. The
people themselves do not use in their folksongs, poetry or language.
Even today the name remains strange to the illiterate people of the
countryside in the very region called Chin Hills in Burma.
2. Kuki
Probably the first recorded used of the name "Kuki" appeared in the
History of Tripura as early as 1512 AD.[23] During the reign of Tripura
Raja Dhanya Manikya (around 1490 AD), it was pointed out that, wild race
called Kukees live Thannangchi Forest of Tripura.[24] Yet the origin of
the word itself is most obscure. The colonial historians divided the
Zomi under two names, i.e. the "Kuki" and the "Lushai". This was clearly
demonstrated in the writing of Rawlins. In his paper published in the
Asiatic Research Vol. II, p.12 he called the people "Cucis" or
"Mountaineers from Tipra" by adopting the name used by the Bengali and
Assamese when referring to the Zomi of Chittagong Hill Trace and Tripura
Hills. Colonel John Shakespear clubbed them together and called them
"the Lushai-Kuki Clans". He even included most of the hill tribes of the
Lushai Hills, parts of Manipur, North Cachar Hills, and Tripura, who
have the same cultural affinity, customs and mode of living. In this he
was supported by the British statesmen, ethnographers and linguists. On
the other hand, he was also fully aware that the words "Kuki" and
"Lushai" were not accepted by the people to whom the name applied.[25]
In fact, there never was such a word as "Kuki" in the vocabulary of any
of the Zomi dialects. It is neither a clan name nor family name. The
Lushai too were averse to the name Kuki.[26] In the meantime William
Shaw wrote a book on the Thadou Kuki and he tried to put all the people
of the group under the racial nomenclature of Thadou Kukis.[27] All the
other tribes, except the Thadou speaking and those willing to call
themselves Kuki, do not accept it at all. It has instead now become a
bone of contention among the two- the Thadou and the Kuki, which is
exemplified by the existence of Association/ Organisations like KSO,
TSA, TKSU, TTC, etc. It is known that they even submitted a memorandum
to the Government of Manipur to ban the book.
The anti-Kuki stand of the various Tribes of Manipur was further
strengthened by the resolution of a meeting held on 26 June 1942 in
which they expressed their desire not to identify themselves as
Kuki.[28]
3. Lushai or Mizo
The term Lushai, native 'Lusei,' is commonly used to refer to the Zomi
of the Lushai Hills. It was Mr. Edger, the Deputy Commissioner of Cachar
who first officially used the term "Lushai" instead of "Zomi"[29]
around the year 1897. It may be mentioned that the term may have been
derived from the custom of certain tribes keeping their hair long and
fastening it in a knot at the back of the head (Lu-head, shei-long i.e.
keeping the head long or long head) .It could also have originated from
the custom of head hunting (Lu=head, Shai=cut i.e. head cutting) . Such
interpretations or fanciful explanations were not accepted by John
Shakespear, the Superintendent of the Lushai Hills and an authority on
the Lushai. He made it clear that "Lushai is our way of spelling the
word, the proper way to spell the word, so as to represent the actual
sound, as spoken by the people, is Lushei (Lusei). From this writer it
is apparent that the word "Lushai" is derived from "Lusei", the name of
the most powerful dominating tribe of the Lushai Hills who rule under
the title "Sailo". However, the British later adopted "Lushai" as the
official designation of all Zo people of the Lushai Hills. Then in the
year 1946 the tribes of the Lushai Hills changed their nomenclature into
Mizo. It was on 9 April 1946 that the Mizo Union was founded at the
Muallungthu (Lushai Hills) Conference.[30] The primary object of the
Mizo Union was to bring the Zo people under one nomenclature and when
the British left their country to set up an independent state of the
Zomi living in the Indo-Burma borderland.
Mizo and Zomi
Synonymously and literally, Zomi and Mizo are the same, having the
etymological root, 'Zo'. The term Mizo covers all Zo peoples as does
Zomi according to their respective users. It is only a matter of
pre-fixation and suffixation of 'MI', meaning man or people to 'ZO'. If
'MI' is prefixed to Zo, we get Mizo, whereas if it is suffixed, we get
ZOMI. According to K. Zawla, Mizo is a poetical form of Zomi.[31] For
instance, the accepted poetical expression for a barking deer and a
hornbill will be Khisa and Phualva respectively, whereas their accepted
non-poetical expressions are Sakhi and Vaphual. However, Zomi is more
logical and is the right sequence of syllables, in contrast to Mizo.
Because even the people who are more or less familiar with the word Mizo
normally accept Zo-fa as the correct grammatical combination of the
word when they wish to mean sons of Zoland. They do not say Fa-Zo
poetically or literally. If ZOFA is deemed to be correct, Zomi should be
deemed to be correct. Moreover, the term Zomi is much older than Mizo.
Pu K. Zawla believes that the Zo people had called themselves 'Zomi'
around the 14th century AD whereas 'Mizo' became the official name of
the people of Mizoram in 1954 only when the Lushai Hills was changed to
'Mizo Hills'.
Once Zo is accepted as the generic name of the so-called
Kuki-Chin-Lushai people, affixing 'MI' to 'ZO' either as a prefix or
suffix should no longer be a problem. The affix 'mi' was considered
necessary only due to the earlier misinterpretation of the term 'Zo' as
hill or highland. As the general population became aware of their
progenitor, Zo the people may still be called ZOMI (Zo + People) or Mizo
(People + Zo) and their country Zogam/Zoram. Even Mizoram is
endearingly referred to as Zoram as in the Mizoram state song….. "Kan
Zoram……" (Our Zoland).
In short, imposed names like Kuki, Chin, or Lushai which may have had
derogatory origins have no acceptability for common nomenclature among
the affected people themselves because they are:
Alien and imposed and not born of the people;
If they have any intelligible meaning at all they incline to be on the abusive, unpalatable and derogatory side;
Only popularly used by outsiders and have not taking root in the social fabric of the tribes themselves, and
There has been a tendency to reserve these terms for a particular
tribe or a dialectical group and not for all the tribes as their common
name.
Adoption of Zomi Nomenclature
There is a clear consciousness among different sections of the people
like students, cultural organisations, social units, church groups,
political segments and various organisations about the absence of a
popularly accepted nomenclature for the Chin-Kuki-Lushai people. One
name after another was propounded but failed to get popular acceptance.
This, in spite of the fact that they belong to the same ethnic group. So
the terms, Kuki, Chin, or Lushai, or their combinations like
Lusei-Kuki, Kuki-Chin, Kuki-Lusei-Chin or even acronyms like CHIKUMI(
for Chin-Kuki-Mizo) or CHIKIM (for Chin-Kuki-Mizo) could not be firmly
in the minds of the people, who intrinsically know that they are foreign
terms having no meaning in any local dialects. Two wrongs or three
wrongs can not make right. They cannot but help resist because they were
imposed upon them by rulers and outsiders to be their identity, without
their knowledge and readiness to accept them.
It is a fact of modern history that in the past Zo people identified
themselves willy-nilly either as Chin or Kuki or Lushai in order to be
accepted in Military services. Today things have changed. The search for
an acceptable name that is not only popular, appropriate and meaningful
but is the original name for a common identity of the Zo racial group
ends with Zomi, after the progenitor, Zo.
The arguments for Zomi nomenclature have been dealt with extensively in
the section on the generic name, and needs no further explanation.
However, the manner in which Zomi gets maximum organisations pleading
for its acceptance at various levels may be highlighted as under:
In Burma, a Committee was formed in 1953 to remove the existing
confusion over names for a common racial nomenclature.[32] After
thorough research, the Committee realised that they were indeed
descendants of Zo, and realised they had always called themselves - Zo,
Yo, Yaw, Shou, Jo and the like from time immemorial. Thus, they
unanimously recommended the term 'Zomi' for their racial nomenclature
.This was subsequently adopted in a general meeting at Saikah village at
Thantlang, Chin State (see documents). In 1983, after a gap of thirty
years, the name Zomi was reviewed in a Convention held at Thantlang,
where out of 434 delegates from different areas of the region, 424 voted
in favour of the earlier 1953 recommendation . Today the term Zomi is
widely used by various organisations like Zomi Baptist Conventions, Zomi
Christian Literature Society, Zomi Baptist Press, Zomi Theological
College, Rangoon University Zomi Students' Association, Zomi Literature
Upliftment Society, etc.
In 1988 the Burmese Government officially recognised the name Zomi as an
ethnic group of the country, and formally accepted Zomi National
Congress as a political party in Burma. In their proclamation, the Zomi
National Congress wrote:
We proclaim that the racial name 'Chin' should be done away with and
Zou (Zo) must be re-instated to its proper place and status of racial
identity.[33]
On the Indian administered areas, the Zo people rejected the name Lushai
and changed it to Mizo (People + Zo) in the 1940s on realising the fact
that their progenitor was Zo. All sections of Zomi were actively
involved in Mizo Union movement at its initial stage. However, some
sections gradually disassociated from the movement on the ground of
linguistic imposition, and their suspicion was vindicated by the Peace
Accord signed in 1988 which covered only Lushai speaking areas. Today
Mizoram stands as one Zomi state within Zoland, the Zomi inhabited areas
of the region.
In Manipur, the question of Zomi nomenclature was not an issue until the
recent factional clash between PRA/ZRA and KNF(P), which is also called
Thadou-Paite conflict of 1997 in local parlace due to the innumerable
loss of maximum life from the Thadou and Paite tribe. In 1971, a
political organisation called Zomi National Congress (ZNC) was formed at
Daizang, Manipur. It was at the initiative of the party that the First
World Zomi Convention was held at Champhai, Mizoram from May 19–21,
1988. Thousands of delegates of all Zo clans from around the world
attended the Convention and declared that. It issued a historic
declaration on the question of ethnic identify as follows:
We, the people of Zo ethnic group, inhabitants of the highlands in
the Chin Hills and Arakans of Burma, the Chittagong Hill Tracts of
Bangladesh, the Mizoram state and adjoining hills areas of India are
descendants of one ancestor. Our language, our culture and tradition,
and no less our social and customary practices are clear evidences of
the ethnological facts. Further, our historical records, and footprints
both written and unwritten in the sands of time testify to the truth of
our common ancestry.[34]
The same year a significant proclamation released by the Zomi National
Congress in Burma concluded on a strong note: "We proclaim that the
racial name Chin should be done away with and Zo must be reinstated to
its proper place and status of racial identity."[35]
In early 1980s an awakening for common identity was aroused among Zomi
intellectuals of Manipur. A wide ranging consultation was organised by
Kuki-Chin Baptists Leaders during1981-83 .They published a book called,
"In search of Identity" in which all the writers stressed on the
homogeneous characteristics of the so-called Kuki-Chin-Lushai people,
and recommended Zomi nomenclature. Dr H Kamkhenthang, the Editor of the
booklet wrote thus:
To me Zomi is an indigenous term having its own meaning to the
people. This term remained buried in the stratum of socio-cultural
layers of the people that is taking its own germination though retarded
by the imposition of foreign terms to which the people respond
externally.[36]
Today a large number of organisations have started in different parts of
the world under the name Zomi viz. Zomi Christian Fellowship, Zomi
Christian International, All Zomi Students' Association, Zomi Welfare
Society, Zomi Democratic Front, Zomi Christian Church, Zomi Inkuan, Zomi
Nam Ni Magazine, Zomi Students' Federation, Zomi Youth Association,
Zomi Mothers' Association, etc. Further more and more Zomi tribes
realised the impropriety of calling themselves 'Nation' and while
accepting Zomi as their national name effected a change in the naming of
their tribe's apex organisation, viz, Simte National Council was
changed into Simte Tribe Council, Paite National Council to Paite Tribe
Council, Gangte Tribes Union, and more and more of such progressive
changes are on the offerings among the tribes.
Thus, Zomi as the racial common nomenclature of all Zo descendants is an
undeniable historical and anthropological fact. There is not an iota of
bigotry when Zomi champion that 'Zomi' is the genuine national name of
those who have been called Kuki-Chin-Lushai people by imposition. The
remedy to having confusing names lies in calling ourselves Zomi, as Pu
Dr. Vum Kho Hau, had pointed out:
Had the word Kuki or Chin or Lushai been changed to ZOMI at that
time, the right word for calling the various tribes and clans of the Zo
race inhabiting the areas joining Burma, East Pakistan (Bangladesh) and
Assam (India) would have been answered a long time ago.
The era of truth and nationalism begin to dawn upon the Zomi. The name,
Zomi, which remained inactive in the social, cultural layers and
folksongs of the past, is now surfacing in the social, cultural,
religious and political folds.
Zomi Nationalism
Nationalism, by definition, 'is a state or a condition of mind
characteristic of certain peoples with a homogeneous culture, living
together in a close association in a given territory, and sharing a
belief in a distinctive existence and a common destiny'.[37] It 'implies
the identification of the state or nation with the people or at least
the desirability of determining the extent of the state according to the
ethnographic principles'. This concept is particularly true for the
Zomi who now live in three different countries. The ethnological unit
and the relationship of the Zomi of India, Burma and Bangladesh have
been conspicuously transmitted through their history, culture, social
life, traditions, language, customs, folktales, poetry and songs.
Before elaborating on the ethnic homogeneity of Zomi, it will be
interesting to present here some important studies on the Zomi conducted
by British who unanimously concluded that the Zomi in India and Burma
are 'of one and the same stock' (Carey and Tuck,1896,p2).
On the Indian side, Lt. Col. John Shakespear, the first Superintendent
of the amalgamated Lushai Hills District, wrote his monograph, "The
Lushei-Kuki Clans", which covers all the Zomi clans living in Lushai
Hills and Manipur Hills. The Monograph was written during a period of
more than twenty years of service among the Zomi, and he was, perhaps,
the best informed of the early administrators concerning Zomi ethnicity.
Shakespear came to a definite conclusion on the homogeneity question
and wrote,
There is no doubt that the Kukis, Chins, and Lushais are all of the same race.[38]
In his monograph, Shakespear used 'Clan', not 'tribe', consistently for
the different Zomi groups because of the high degree of identity which
he found existing among the people in language, culture and history.
Another monograph, "Notes on the Thadou Kukis", written by William Shaw
was published in 1919. On the question of ethnic homogeneity Shaw was
equally emphatic:
The Koms, Aimols, Khothang, Thadous, Chins, Lushai, Pois, Soktes
(Sukte), Paites, Gangtes, etc. are undoubtedly connected. The language
alone has many similarities and the syntax is not dissimilar. Again
these are their customs which have a common principle running through
them all.[39]
Commenting on the above statement, J.H. Hutton, one of the greatest
authorities of his time on the Tribes of North East, gives unqualified
support: "The affinity of the Thado with the other branches of the Kuki
race mentioned by Mr. Shaw is unquestionable" Col. E. B. Elly on his
"Military Report on the Chin-Lushai Country" also makes this comments:
All these were people of the same race, speaking dialects of the
same language, wearing the same dress, and having the same customs, form
of politics, and religious belief.[40]
On the Burmese side, Betram S. Carey, the political officer of Chin
Hills, and H. N. Tuck his Assistant, were engaged in preparing a
substantial book, "The Chin Hills: A History of the People, our dealing
with them, and their customs and manners, and a Gazetteer of their
Country," which was published in two volumes by the Government of Burma
in 1896. At the initial stage of their study they have the feeling that
'the Chins have nothing in common with the Lushais of Assam'. However,
after a thorough investigation they modified their position and
concluded that:
Without pretending to speak with authority on the subject, we think
we may reasonably accept the theory that the Kukis of Manipur the Lushai
of Bengal and Assam and the Chins originally lived in what we know as
Tibet, and are of one and the same stock : their form of government,
method of cultivation, manners, and customs, beliefs and traditions all
point to one origin.[41]
They also summarize the common traits of all the Zomi throughout the Chin-Lushai Hills.
Another monumental work which supports the homogeneity of the Zomi
(Chin-Kuki-Lushai people) is the well known linguist, G. A. Grierson's
"Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. III, Part III, published in 1904".
Through careful and elaborate comparisons of the various languages
spoken in India and Burma he demonstrated clearly the dialects spoken by
the Zomi are a distinct language group under the Assam-Burmese branch
of the Tibeto-Burman family of languages.
Apart from the above scholars, every writer of note dealing with one or
more sections of the Zomi has noted the homogeneity of the tribe. These
include Stephen Fuchs, F. K. Lehman, B. C. Chakraborty, S. K. Chaube, B.
B. Goswami, H. K. Barpujari, etc. among outsiders writing in English,
and among Zomi writers Pastor Liangkhaia, R. Vanlawma, Lalthangliana, T.
Gougin, Dr. Tualchin Neihsial, Mangkhosat Kipgen, Vum Kho Hau etc. all
speaks of the cultural, historical and traditional homogeneity of Zomi
Tribes.
The nationality of Zomi as a distinct racial stock can be elaborated on the following points:-
Common Race
People are easily tied to each other by the factor of common race or
kinship. The Zomi are distinctly different from the Aryans of India and
Burmans of Burma. All the Zomi tribes and sub-tribes resemble each other
very closely in appearance, and their characteristics, behaviour and
colour identify them as being of the Mongolian race. A unique Mongolian
characteristic which is found among the Zomi is the 'blue Mongolian
spot", which can be seen on the back and buttock of every new-born
child, male or female. Being the Mongoloid stock, their skin colour
varies between dark yellow-brown, dark olive copper and yellow olive.
The face is nearly as broad as it is long and is generally round or
square, the cheek bone high, broad and prominent, eyes small and
almond-shaped, the nose short and flat, thick hair and usually straight
and jet black. 'The Zomi are well-built with strong limbs and good
figures; the average height of the man is about 5 feet and 6 inches .
Other common characteristics of the Zomi, as observed by Carey and Tuck
are worth mentioning:
...the main Kuki characteristics can be universally traced as – The
slow speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge
of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
combination and continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
discouragement and panic in defeat are common traits throughout the
hills.
These traits were quite applicable to the Zomi in the past during the
period of British rule. There are some traits which still hold good
today, e.g. clannish feeling, knowledge of pedigree, impatience under
control, virtue of hospitality and mutual distrust. The other traits are
on the wane as a result of the influence of Christianity and exposure
to outside world.
Common Religion
Religion has played a very important part in uniting the Zomi. The Zomi
were not proselytized into Buddhism of Burma or Islam of East Pakistan
(now Bangladesh) nor Hinduism of India. They maintained their
traditional belief, viz. animism up till the coming of the British who,
not only conquered but also introduced Christianity in Zo country. The
efforts of the Christian Missionaries of various denominations were
nowhere more successful than in Zo country, and it was estimated that by
1947, about 80% of Zomi were converted into Christianity.
Zokam is Common Language in Chin State
Well known linguist, G. A. Grierson in his book, "Linguistics Survey of
India, Vol. III, Part III" demonstrated clearly that Zomi language is a
branch of the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. The Zomi speaks
numerous dialects, but linguistic affinities prevail among them, and
verbal or non-verbal communication has never been too great a problem.
Much less in the olden days Vum Kho Hau writes:
But in traditional songs and poetry, they still retain its original
uniformity and the meaning is generally understood by the hearer
regardless of whether he comes from Teddim, Tukhiang, Assam,
Manipur.[42]
Thus, not only do the old songs preserved among different clans but even
the folk songs being composed at present, reveal the extent of the
uniformity of language that existed in the not-so-distant past. The
small dialectical differences that are there stem from the words that
are borrowed from Burmese, Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Manipuri or
Arakanese, so that they sound mutually unintelligible to an unaccustomed
ear. They remain basically the same, nevertheless.
On the basis of slight differences, the Zomi language may be divided
into two: R-Group and Non-R-Group. The non-R-Group (like the Thadou,
Paite, Simte, Vaiphei, Zoute, etc.) has no R-sound and is devoid of some
consonant clusters like Tl, Hm,….. in their dialects. The R-Group
includes Lushai, Hmar, Lakher, Pawi and all the so-called Old Kukis like
Kom, Anal, Chiru which have R-sound and are closer to the Lushai or
Hmar dialects.
Professor Gordon Luce[43] analysed 700 words of Zomi Language common to
at least three Zo dialects. From these 700 words 230 words are common in
all dialects of Zomi. Pu Lalthangliana also estimated that the Zomi
dialects share about 60% of the words in common. About 40% are peculiar
to the locality in which they are spoken. An illustration of these
linguistic affinities are provided by Lamka Town in Manipur, where
people belonging to various zomi groups live together and are able to
communicate with ease, each using their own dialect.
William Shaw also wrote:
The Koms, Aimols, Khothlangs, Thadous, Lushei, Chirus, Pois, Suktes,
Paites, Gangtes, etc are undoubtedly all connected. The language also
has many similarities and the syntax is not dissimilar.
Zo language is known as "Zo Ham" meaning Zo Language. There is no Zo Pau
which is combined from of two languages Zo and Sim. Some of the Zomi
Nationalist have had adopted it out of their Nationalism.
Common History
The Zomi have undoubtedly passed through the same historical
experiences, not-with-standing slight differences in its presentation,
dates and figures due to the absence of written records for a greater
period of their history.
Common Political Aspiration
In the pre-colonial period, the Zomi were independent. They were never
subjugated by the Ahom of Assam; by the Kingdoms of Tripura and Bengal;
nor by the Meithei or Burman (Ava). It was only the might of a modern
state (British) that subjugated them completely for the first time.[44]
The British, however, soon realized their mistakes in fragmenting
unified Zo country and tried to amalgamate the Zomi in Burma, Bangladesh
and India into a single administrative unit in the 1890s. However,
around that time there was no political consciousness/awareness among
the Zomi who could envisage the fruits of such unification. Only on the
eve of Indian independence did a few Zomi leaders become aware of the
implications of being scattered under three different political units.
Since then the Zomi has been fighting for integration in various forms
and intensity. Their just demand for uniting all the members of the Zomi
nationality under the same government of their own choice and creation
has not been fulfilled till today!
Geographical Contiguity
The fact that the Zomi live in a geographically contiguous area in the
Indo-Burma-Bangladesh borderlands needs no further elaboration. This is
their ancestor homeland where no other nationality lived except the
Zomi.
Common Culture
The existence of common cultural traits among the Zomi is another
indication of their being a nation. A few examples may be cited, click
the below links to read more:
Clan Songs
Possession of clan songs by the clans forming the tribes is a unique
feature of the Zomi. Members of the same clan in each tribe possess clan
songs which were revered and sang at the time of mourning dead only.
Agamous Marriage
The majority of the tribes follow agamous marriage in which a man can
marry any woman within and outside his clan.[45] All the major tribes
like Tedim-Chin, Gangte, Hmar, Lakher, Lushai, Paite, Thadou, Vaiphei,
etc. follow agamy. The only exception to this rule are the so-called
Old-Kukis (Anal, Kom, Mongsangs, etc.) where there are definite
wife-takers and wife-giver.
Common Folktales
There are many folktales common and current among the Zomi. They have
such tales as "Khupching (Khupting) and Ngambawm", "Thangho and Liando",
"Ngalngam (Ralngam)", "Temtatpu (Tingtinpa- the Dao sharpener)", "A
Wild Cat and a Domestic Hen," etc. These stories are found among the
Zomi in Manipur, Assam, Burma etc. in a more or less similar forms.
'Possession of the same folktales means nothing but the people are of
the same folk having similar social ritual norms and similar philosophy
of life'.
Hair Dress / Styles
The Zomi in general, with some exceptions, do not cut their hair. They
keep their hair long and have two coiffure: (I) The top knot on the top
of the head, as in the case of Fanai, Marings, Pois (Haka), and Tashons
(II) The chingnon on the nape of the neck as in the case of Anal,
Gangte, Hmar, Lushai, Paite, Simte, Siyins, Suktes, Thado, Vaipheis,
Zoute, etc.
Belief in Common Origin
The different Zomi tribes hold the common belief that they originally
emerged out of a cave or hole. This mythological cave is known by
various names like Khuul, Khur, Khurpui, Khurtu-bijur, Sinlung,
Chinlung, etc. by various tribes like Thadou (Shaw 1929:24-26), Lushai
(Shakespear: 1912), Lakher (Parry 1976:4), Tedim/Paite-Chin
(Kamkhenthang 1967:1-2) and Moyon-Monsang, etc.
Common System of Naming a Child
In naming a child, the Zomi have a strong emphasis on taking the names
of their ancestors. In a society that is patrilineal and patrilocal the
eldest son of the eldest male member is compulsorily named after the
last syllable of the paternal grandfather. This rule serves as a
yardstick for tracing the family lineage in successive generations.[46]
Today, the Falam, Hmars, Lushai and a few other Zomi Tribes no longer
practice this customs.
From the above common cultural traits everything suggest that the Zomi
are one nation, inhabiting contiguous area, sharing common customs,
languages, culture, folktales and history. It may be concluded with a
common folk song sang by the Zomi ever since they live as one nation
around Chiimnuai area in the early 18th century:
Eiteng khawlkhawm a tuam omlo,
Vannuai chiteng KHUUL a piang;
Tuunsung khat a piang hi ngeingei,
Tuunsung khat a piang hi ngeingei,
Suahpih sanggam khat hi hang;
Laizom khat hi ngeingei hang.
Free translation:
We, people who are in aggregation are of one stock,
Every body under the heaven is born of a cave (Khuul)
And born of the same mother,
Being born of the same mother,
We are all born together as siblings,
We are really descendants of the same siblings.
Note: The KHUUL 'cave' mentioned here might be the SAIZANG CAVE in
Burma. The Zo tribe of Burma and India do not claim to have emerge from
KHUUL as given in this song.
History of Zo Struggle
Colonial Rule and Record
Unlike those areas of India's north-east where indigenous peoples are in
a dominant position, the hill tribes of two princely states (Manipur
and Tripura) occupy an anomalous status within the Indian constitutional
arrangement. Political and demographic factors like the Partition and
immigration from a densely populated neighbour (Bangladesh) reduced the
indigenous "Borok" people in Tripura to a minority status. Similar
demographic pressures in the valley of Manipur vitiate the normally good
relationship between the locally dominant community and the indigenous
hill tribes of Manipur today.
After British control of Assam in 1826 and of Upper Burma in 1886, vast
areas of hill tracts between India and Burma still remained beyond
imperial surveys and colonial conquest. Of indigenous populations
sandwiched between imperial Calcutta and Rangoon, the so-called
Chin-Kuki-Lushai tribes were one of the last resistant forces to succumb
to British rule. Due to linguistic affinities and geographical
contiguity, their land was often described simply as "Chin-Lushai
country" (Elly 1893) and the people were variously called "Chin-Kuki"
(Grierson 1904) or "Lushei Kuki clans" (Shakespear 1912). Till the
Lushai Expedition of 1871, the inhabitants of Lushai Hills were rather
loosely termed "Kukis" or "Kookies" in colonial records. To create the
deepest impressions of British power on the local societies, major
military expeditions to the contiguous hill tracts between the Chin
Hills, Lushai Hills and the southern hills of Manipur were always
coordinated. These military strikes culminated in the Chin-Lushai
Expedition of 1889-1890 that permanently brought the Lushai Hills under
colonial rule.
Following on the heels of the Chin-Lushai Expedition, the Chin-Lushai
Conference took place at Fort William (Calcutta) on 29 January 1892.
Significantly it was a military officer, R G Woodthorpe, who apparently
initiated the idea of the conference almost four months earlier in his
"Note on our Dealing with Savage Tribes and the Necessity for having
them under One Rule".[47] From a logistic and military point of view,
the administrative division of the "Chin Lushai country" impeded the
operational manoeuvrability of the British frontier forces "working
under different orders".[48] That explains why Woodthorpe lamented, "The
Chin Lushai files abound in instances of difficulties having been
caused by the three governments of Bengal, Assam and Burma having
jurisdiction in these hills".[49] In the face of stiff opposition from
civilian interests, some military officers at the conference advocated
the administrative unification of the Chin Lushai hill tracts. A recent
research in the Indian Historical Review describes this colonial tussle
as "administrative rivalries on a frontier" (Pau 2007: 187). Since the
unified administration was proposed to be "subordinate"[50] to Assam,
the chief commissioner of Burma and other non-Assam cadres in this turf
war expectedly opposed the move. The Chin Lushai Conference eventually
reached a compromise. While it was "very desirable" to unify "the whole
tract of country known as the Chin-Lushai Hills",[51] it was implied
that this new step would be delayed. On a positive note, it was
unanimously "agreed" – not merely desirable – that north Lushai in Assam
and south Lushai in Bengal would be unified "under Assam at once".[52]
The delimitation of colonial boundaries at the Calcutta conference had
indirect but long-term political imprint on later indigenous struggles
and political possibilities. The administrative unification of north and
south Lushai due to strategic concerns of military officers ironically
rendered indigenous Mizo "peoples" locally dominant within a
well-demarcated territorial unit in British Assam. Though unintended by
the then colonial authorities, the concerns of the 1892 Conference
retrospectively acquired new resonance with Zo indigenous leadership who
met almost a century later at their first mammoth "world
conference"[53] in 1988 – this time at Champhai town, on the border of
Mizoram and Myanmar. Usable pasts (including unhappy colonial pasts) can
be rescued from oblivion to inform present social possibilities and
future political imaginations.
Though the second half of the resolutions of the conference was
immediately implemented, the first half was destined to be aborted by
new administrative developments in the shape of the Government of India
Act 1935. Under this important act, the administration of British Burma
was once and for all severed from that of British India. By demarcating
an international boundary between India and Burma, colonial cartography
mapped by the 1935 Act inadvertently partitioned an open Asian
borderland – "Chin Lushai country" – inhabited by various Zo indigenous
tribes referred to derogatorily as "savages newly brought under British
control"[54] in the minutes of the Chin Lushai Conference. A shared
ancestral territory (to borrow Sunil Khilnani's phrase) got "severed by
the hasty scrawl of an imperial pen between India and Burma" (2004: 31).
An important feature of the 1935 Act relates to the introduction of
certain safeguards in the form of Excluded and Partially Excluded
Areas.[55] This ensured full autonomy in the internal administration of
certain indigenous tribal polities by insulating them from the control
of ministerial India. But there was an anomaly in colonial northeast
India: the hill areas of two princely states (Manipur and Tripura) did
not figure in the colonial map of internally autonomous Excluded and
Partially Excluded Areas (in quaint colonial parlance) in the 1935 Act.
Since the Constituent Assembly's "debt to the 1935 Act in particular is
very great" (Austin 2008: 328), indigenous hill peoples of Manipur and
Tripura predictably did not figure in the Sixth Schedule of the
Constitution in independent India.
The Sixth Schedule was created by the Bardoloi Sub-Committee in which
three men – Bardoloi, Nichols-Roy and B N Rau – played crucial roles.
Formed on 27 February 1947, the Bardoloi Sub-Committee of the
Constituent Assembly of India tried to work out within a period of five
months a compromise formula between the bureaucratic dreams of a British
Crown protectorate on the one hand, and the Indian nationalist haste to
abolish the special safeguards enjoyed by the hill tribes under the
raj, on the other. Anyway, it later transpired that the Bardoloi
Sub-Committee made a curious omission of two hill areas of the
north-east. This rendered the indigenous tribes of the Tripura
predictably vulnerable to a serious demographic crisis in the wake of
the Partition, and the hill areas of modern Manipur soon turned into
hotbeds of political unrest that has spilled over into the Indo-Naga
problem. S K Chaube of CSSS (Kolkota) attempts to explain why the hill
tribes of Manipur and Tripura have remained outside the purview of the
Bardoloi Sub-Committee – and hence, the Sixth Schedule:
The problem of the princely states, because of its all-India
dimension, missed the special attention needed in the north-eastern
region. Tripura and Manipur were partly 'tribal states' … No special
arrangement was made for the hill areas of Tripura and Manipur. Perhaps
the Constituent Assembly felt that, as the integrated Indian states
would be constituted as part B and part C states under the rigorous
control of the Centre, no special scheme for their minorities would be
necessary (Chaube 1999: 97).
It was only as an afterthought that the hill areas of Tripura received
in 1985 protection of indigenous rights under the Sixth Schedule.[56]
But unfortunately by then, the demographic deluge had happened. A
similar demand for Sixth Schedule by the indigenous hill tribes of
Manipur was snubbed by locally dominant interests. Indigenous tribal
elites in the hills of Manipur were sensitive to their relatively
vulnerable status vis-à-vis the special status of other hill tribes of
the north-east. They also readily perceive real or imagined threats –
especially linguistic chauvinism – of the dominant Hindu Meitei
community that tends to forget the cultural diversity of Manipur.
Further, the "postcolonial miseries" of the Zo people and the
articulation of their contested indigenous identities were inflected by
colonial contingencies and expedients played out in the ironies of
historical trajectories.
Zomi Nam Ni (Zomi National Day)
Zomi Nam Ni is celebrated on the 20th day of February every year since
1948 in different countries. The Day is observed as a day of
deliverance, love, peace, unity, political retrospection and remembrance
of the history of the Zomi.
Before the advent of the British, the Zoland, during that time
comprising Chin Hills, Lushai Hills and Chittagong Hill Tract was
occupied and ruled by the Zo people. They had their own sovereign
self-government through their Chiefs, who administered in the form of
democratic decentralization.
However, with the annexation of Burma by 1885 and Chittagong, the Chin
Hills and Lushai Hills were gradually subjugated in 1890, and the formal
annexation was completed in 1896. The Hills of Manipur had also been
conquered and dominated after the British annexation of Manipur in 1891.
The same fate befell with the other Zo peoples in Bangladesh, Tripura
and Assam.
The Colonialists noticed that the Zo people were in loose confederates,
many of them without any principal Chief to govern them. They had no
written rule of law and written procedure of judicial code, but strong
customary and traditional practices and justice system existed. The
British therefore, drafted a model code of law and rules of appointment
of Chief by 1907 and then installed feudal Chiefs at different places.
The autocratic rule of the British Government could neither be tolerated
nor accepted by the Zo people and therefore, on the 20th day of
February 1928, a new political organization was formed at Matungnung
village of Mindat for the liberation of the Zomi from such undemocratic
administration by foreign power. It grew, expanded, and moved forward
and by 1939, the following nine points were demanded to be fulfilled by
the British Government:
Zoland has to acquire equal share and administration as that of the Plains.
The Zo natives must be consulted for any New Laws, Regulations, and Acts to be passed and enforced in Zoland.
Education, health, economy, trade and commerce should be developed and expanded with an increased in their budget.
Secondary and higher secondary education up to college level must be immediately upgraded and established.
Freedom of religion or religious secularism must be practically enforced and the Government must see to it.
Transport and communication must be improved and the
administration must give priority in road building connecting one
village to another.
The Government must chalk out ways and means for the peaceful
communication between the Hills and the Plains without any hindrance.
The Zo people must be uplifted economically, socially and politically at par with the other neighboring people.
The Zomi should also enjoy the same fate and self determination as and when Burma achieved its freedom.
The above Memorandum earned the wrath of the Government and instead of
fulfilling them; the Government viewed the organisation as illegal and
tried to ban. Yet undaunted by the intimidation, the Zomi continued
their resistance with one accord and the popular movement became so
strong a tide that, the British were compelled to leave Kanpelet
thereafter.
When Burma attained its own independence, it immediately drafted its own
Constitution and accordingly, by 1949, the Burmese Parliament was
divided into two Houses – the Upper House and the Lower House. As the
general election drew nearer, the Zo people, in order to send their own
representative, summoned the first General Assembly under the Zomi
National Conference at Falam during February 19–22, 1948. In this
Assembly of Conference the following issues were broadly discussed:
The high handedness and step-motherly treatment being meted out to the Zomi.
Compulsory taxes and revenues levied upon them.
Forced labour without any payment of wages.
Illegally withholding of the wages of many bread-earners.
Oppressive governance and repressive nature of some political or military officers.
Self-rule and democratic administration.
After a thorough deliberation of the above issues, a plebiscite was
taken from all the members of congregation, each of who was the
representative of his own tribe from their respective region. As many as
4993 votes out of 5000 were cast in favour of the motion taken and
hence, resolutions for further necessary action was adopted and passed.
Since then, foreign domination and control, outside administration,
repression in the form of forced labour and taxes, etc., etc., were
annulled with the following additional ruling and declaration:
To celebrate the Zomi Nam Ni (Zomi National Day) for the peaceful association of the various Zo Communities.
It must be a basis for the endorsement of democracy as the fulfillment of the general will.
It is also aimed at building unity and cooperation with the
other populace of independent Burma and India to improve justice and
equality for the stabilization of the Zoland as well as to promote a
helping hand among the Zo people.
Thus, the Zomi Nam Ni (Zomi National Day) is observed as a day to
commemorate the end of colonialism and imperialism and to mark the
liberation of Zoland from the alien rule, in other words, it signifies
the installation of sovereign self-rule. For this, the 20th day of
February is set aside and being observed as Zomi Nam Ni (Zomi National
Day) since 1948 every year. It is also a national integration day for
all the Zo Community of India and Myanmar. As such, the Day is
celebrated with great elate every year in every parts of the globe where
the Zomi settled since then. The Day was recognized as one of the
National Holidays in Myanmar (Burma) and significantly coincided with
the Mizoram Statehood Day.
As time went on, the Zomis in Manipur and different parts of the world
started celebrating the Day with a great zeal as an important cultural
event whereby all the tribes presented their own traditional dances,
conducting various items such as Miss Zomi pageant, Musical Nites, etc.
Such meaningful annual event is found to have positive impact on the
general psyche of the people. It also fostered mutual understanding and
peaceful co-existence.
Notables
Thangkhangin Ngaihte State Rresident of the Lok Janshakti Party (LJP) Manipur State Committee.
References
^ Dr Tualchin Neihsial, op. cit., p.15
^ Lehman, F.K., The Structure of Chin Society, Urgan, University of Illinois Press, 1963, p.5
^ Fan-Cho, 'The Manshu: Book of Southern Barbarians, 862. Translated
by Gordon H. Luce. Daraper: No. 44, Southeast Asia Prog, Cornell
University, Ithaea, New York, 1961.
^ Fr. V. Sangermano (1833), 'A description of the Burmese Empire,' p.43
^ Yule, Henry (1968), 'A Narrative of the Mission of the Court of Ava in 1855, Kuala Lumpur,' p.265
^ Vum Kho Hau, Dr, 'Profile of Burma Frontier man', Bandung, Indonesia, 1963, p.301
^ G.A. Grierson, Dr., Linguistic Survey of India vol. III, part 3, p.2
^ Text of Adoption of the name Zomi Baptist Convention, 1953
^ U Thein Pe Myint, Chin Withita Thamaing Asa, (Rangoon: Burma
Transmission Society), 1967, p.127 as quoted from 'Zo People and their
Culture' by Sing Khaw Khai, Lamka, 1955, p.3
^ Carey, B.S. & Tuck, H.N., The Chin Hills Vol. I, Delhi's Cultural Publishing House, 1896 (first) pp. 3,23
^ George Scott, J. Sr., Burma: A Handbook of Practical Information, 1911, p.104 and Burma and Beyond, 1932, p.187
^ TT Haokip, 'Contested Nomenclatures: The Kuki-Chin-Mizo
Perspective', paper presented at an international seminar on Exploring
the History, Culture and Identity of the Chin people, 12–14 October
2008, Aizawl.
^ Thawng Khaw Hau, ZO Khang Simna Laibu, 1955, p.4
^ Capt. K. A. Khup Za Thang, Zo Suanh Khang Simna Laibu (Genealogy of the Zo Race of Burma), 1974, pp. 1-258
^ Dr. Vum Kho Hau, Profile of Burma Frontier Man, 1963, p.214
^ Dr. Vum Son, Zo History, 1986, pp. 57,75
^ The World Book Encyclopaedia, Vol. 14, 1964, p.5
^ Dr. Tualchin Neihsial, History and Culture of the Zoumis, 1993 (unpublished thesis), p.3
^ Mizoram: News Magazine, Winter Issue, No. 2 (1985), p.18 as quoted
in Mangkhosat Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, MTC (1996), p.20
^ FK Lehman, Structure of the Chin Society, 1963, p.3
^ Gordon H Luce, Chin Hills-Linguistic Tour (Dec 1954), University
Project: Journal of the Burmese Research Society, Vol XIII, Part 1, June
1955, p.26
^ ST Hau Go, 'Some Random Thoughts About Our People, Our Language
and Our Culture' in the 'Chin Literature and Cultural Sub-Committee
Magazine, 1970-71, Rangoon, p.9
^ GA Gierson, op. cit., p.1
^ Bhattacharya, A.C.: Progressive Tripura, New Delhi, 1992, p.44-58
^ John Shakespear, The Lushei-Kuki Clan, 191 (The term Kuki, like
Naga, Chin Shendu and many others, is not recognised by the people to
whom we apply it.)
^ Memorandum Submitted to His Majesty's Government, Government of
India and its constituent Assembly through the Advisory Sub-Committee by
the Mizo Union on 26-4-1947
^ William Shaw, Notes on the Thadou Kukis, 1929, p.30
^ Goswhami, B.B.: The Mizo: A Study of Politicisation of Culture, 1979, p.86
^ WB Oldham, 'The Word Lushai', Vocabulary of the Lushai Language edited by RH Snyed Hutchinson, Calcutta, 1897, p.1
^ R Vanlawma, Kan Ram leh Kei (My Country and I), Aizawl, 1972, p.88
^ Zawla, K., Mizo Pi Pute leh an Thlahte Chanchin (History of the
Mizo Forefathers and their Descendants), Aizawl, 196, pp. 8-10
^ Burma News; Bimonthly Magazine of Burma Baptist Missionary Fellowship Vol. 74, May–June, 1961, pp.2-8
^ Zomi National Congress: The Proclamation of the Name Zomi and the Hornbill Emblem, Rangoon, Dec. 1988, p.13
^ Champhai Convention (First World Zomi Convention), by Zo
Reunification Organisation, Aizawl, 1988 p.14; also see Memorandum
submitted by Leaders of Zo Reunification to President Bill Clinton of
USA, Aizawl May 20, 1993, pp. 19-20
^ Thang Lian Pau, The Proclamation of the Name Zomi, Kalemyo, Zomi National Congress, 1988 p.1
^ Dr. Kamkhenthang, H., 'Identity Crisis among the Tribes of
Manipur' in B. Pakem (Edited), 'Nationality, Ethnicity and Cultural
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^ Johari, J.C. 'Principles of Modern Political Science' (New Delhi: Sterling Publilshers Pvt. Ltd. 2000) p.610
^ Lt. Col. J. Shakespear, 'The Lushai Kuki Clans', 1912 (1988 reprint), Aizawl, p.9
^ William Shaw, 'Notes on the Thadou Kukis', 1919, p.16
^ Col. E.B. Elly, Military 'Report on the Chin-Lushai Country', 1893 (reprint 1978), p.1
^ B.S. Carey and H.N. Tuck, 'The Chin Hills', Vol I & II 1896 (reprint, 1986), p.2
^ Vum Kho Hau, 'foreward' to Capt KA Khup Za Thang, 'Genealogy of the Lai (Chin) Race of Burma 1973, p. iii
^ Luce GH, Chin Hills Linguistic Tour, Journal, Burma Res. Soc. 42, 1959, pp. 19-31
^ Sajal Nag, India and North East India, 1998, p.4
^ Dr H Kamkhenthang, 'Groping for Identity' in 'In Search of Identity' (by himself edited), 1986
^ Dr(Rev) JM Paupu, 'When the World of the Zomi Changed' 1995 (unpublished thesis), p.31
^ Chakma, Upendra Lal (1989): "Speech Delivered at a National
Seminar on the Problems of Chittagong at Mahabodhi Society Hall,
Calcutta" in Fourth World Documentation Project, Olympia (Washington)
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^ Chaube, S K (1999): Hill Politics in Northeast India (Hyderabad: Orient Longman Ltd)
^ Dasgupta, Swapan (1985): "Adivasi Politics in Midnapur c
1760-1924" in Ranajit Guha (ed.), Subaltern Studies IV (New Delhi:
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^ Dewan, Ramendu S (1985): "The Crisis of the Chittagong Hill
Tracts" – a report to the annual meeting of the Asian Conference on
Religion and Peace, Seoul, South Korea, April–May, The Fourth World
Documentation Project, Centre for World Indigenous Studies (CWIS),
Olympia, Washington
^ Elly, ColEB (1893): Military Report on the Chin-Lushai Country (reprinted in Aizawl: Tribal Research Institutes, 1978)
^ Elwin, Verrier (1943): The Aboriginals, Bombay
^ Eriksen, Thomas Hylland (1992): "Linguistic Hegemony and Minority Resistance" Journal of Peace Research, 29 (3): 313-32
^ Fernandes, Walter (1995): "Indian Tribals and Search for an
Indigenous Identity" in A K Singh and M K Jabbi (ed.), Tribals in India:
Development, Deprivation and Discontent, Council for Social
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^ Ghurye, G S (1943): The Aborigines – So Called – and Their Future, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona
^ Go, Khup Za (2008): Zo Chronicles: A Documentary Study of History
and Culture of the Kuki-Chin- Lushai Tribe (Delhi: Mittal Publications)
Khup K. Thang
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zomi
